Argument

 Argument

An argument consists of a set of statements or propositions, one of which is the conclusion or claim while the others are premises or grounds. The conclusion is the claim, point, or position which one wants to establish, while the premises are the reasons for maintaining such position

A Statement or Proposition is a sentence that can either be true or false. It is a sentence that has truth value.

Components of Arguments

Premises: These are propositions of or statements upon which inference is based. They are propositions which serve as grounds, reasons, or justifications for the claim made. There are premise indicators.

Conclusion: This is the point, claim or position which one wants to establish. There are conclusion indicators.

Premises indicators 

Since, as much as,  before, otherwise, the reason is that, maybe derived from,  inview of the fact that.

Conclusion indicators 

Therefore,  is in the case that,  hence, as a result, proves that, which proves that, its follows that, which shows that, which means that, which follows that, which allows us to infere that,which implies that, which point to the conclusion 

Types of Argument

• There are two types of argument which are 

Proofs and Refutations

Proof: Is the method of showing that the conclusion of an argument follows indeed from the premises. It is an act of demonstration that if certain premises are true, then the conclusion is true.

Examples:

 (a) 3 is greater than 2 and 2 greater than 1, then, it follows that 3 is greater than 1.

(b) Ope is prettier that Shayo, Shayo is prettier than Tosin, it follows that Ope is prettier than Tosin

Refutation: Is the method of showing that the conclusion of an argument does not follow from the premises. It is the act of demonsrating that if certain premises are true, then the conclusion must be false.

Examples

: (a) If 3 is greater than 2 and 2 greater than 1, then it is false that I is greater than 3,

 (b) Ope is prettier than Shayo, Shayo is prettier than Tosin; it is false therefore that Tosin is prettier than Ope.

An Argument: may therefore either be the demonstration of the necessary truth of a proposed conclusion from a set of true premises (proof) or the demonstration of necessary falsity of a proposed conclusion from a set of true premises (refutation)

Kinds of Argument

There are two kinds of arguments: Deductive and Inductive.

A Deductive Argument is any argument which is either valid or which claims to be valid. In this kind of argument, one reasons from universal or general statements to a particular conclusion

However, there are exceptions to this rule This is because there are instances where one can reason from unversal statements to universal conclusion and from particular statements to particular conclusion in a deductive argument.

Deductive Arguments

Examples

(1) P 1. All buman beings are animals

P2 Dan is a ribeira

Com Therefore, Dan is an animal

(2) Pc 1: All goats are mammals

PY 2: All mammals are animals Con Therefore, all pass are amalı.

C) Pc 1 If Tinde is a human being, then he is mortal

Pr 2 Tunde is a human being

Com Therefore. Tude is mortal

Deductive Argument

Example I above moves from universal premises to a particular conclusion

Example 2 above moves from universal premises to universal conclusion • Example 3 above moves from particular premises to a particular

conclusion

The most important thing in a deductive argument is validity.

A deductive argument is said to be valid if its conlosion follows necessarily from the premises otherwise, talid

In a valid deductive argument, it impossible for us to accept the premises and reject the conclusion without contradiction.

Inductive Arguments

• An Inductive Argument is an argument that is neither formally valid nor claimed to have validity as its goal. In an inductive argument, one reasons that the conclusion has the likelihood of being true given that the premises are true. In an inductive argument, one reasons from particular premises to a general conclusion

However, there are exceptions. There are instances where one can reason from universal statements to a universal conclusion and from particular statements to a particular conclusion in a deductive argument.

Inductive Arguments

Examples (1) Pr). The Egret I saw yesterday was white

Pr 2. The one I saw today was white

 Con. Therefore, all Egrets are white

Example (2) Pr All the birds found in Nigeria sing

Pr 2 All the birds found in Ghana in

con: Therefore, all birds probably sing

Example (3) Pr 1 It rained on 2nd June 2020

Pr 2. It rained on 2nd June 20241

Con Probably will rain on 2nd June 2022

Inductive Arguments

• 1xample 1 above moves from particular premises to a universal conclusion • Example 2 above moves from universal premises to universal conclusion

Example 3 above moves from particular premises to a particular conclusion

It is important to note that the conclusion of an inductive argument does not follow necessarily follow from the premises

In an inductive argument, it is possible for us to cept the premises and reject the conclusion

Important Relationships to Note

A Validity/Invalidity are proparties of deductive arguments alone.

Truth/falsity are properties of statements or propositions. • Certainty is to deductive conclusion while probability is to inductive conclusion

Necessity is to deductive inference while contingency is to inductive inference.

•An Inference is the conclusion reached on the basis of evidence in reasoning.